T.U. Curriculum for Microbiology IIIrd Year

T.U. Curriculum for Microbiology IIIrd Year
b. Medical and Environmental Microbology


Course No. : MB 333
Full Marks : 100
Pass Marks : 35
1. Historical background of medical microbiology : Historical aspects of medical microbiology and various diseases processes.
2. Bacterial flora of the human body : Study of microorganisms from skin, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, commensals, symbiotic, oppurtinistics.
3. Methods of transmission of diseases : Explanation of epidemic, endemic, pandemic.
4. Types of infection : Mechanism of infection, host parasitic interaction.
5. Immunity process : Types of immunity, Immunoglobin and their types, antigen antibody reactions, auto immuno disease, hyper sensitivity, AIDS.
6. Safety measures in clinical laboratory : Principles of laboratories safety, decontamination and disposal of infected materials.
7. Importance of antibiotics, chemotherapeutic agents in clinical microbiology : Types of antibiotics, chemotherapeutics agent, mode of actions.
8. Methods of specimen collection, transportation of medical samples or specimen : Cerebrospinal fluid, blood sputum, urine and other body fluids, discharges and pus.
9. Method of collections of viral samples : Introduction, types of viral samples, maintenance of temperature and transportation, identification and interpretation.
10. Common pathogenic viruses : Mumps, Measles and Polio, Influenza, Rabies, HIV, viral culture.
11. Sample colection and lab diagnosis of nicotinic infections : Samples, nasal swab, skin scrapping, other samples.
12. Medically important fungi : Introduction, classification, morphology, basis of growth.
13. Microbial ecology : Microbial association of soil, water and air.
14. Aquatic Microbiology : Introduction, Types pf water, characteristics of water.
15. The water quality basis : Water quality criteria, source of water pollution, water pollution control, water treatment, control of water-borne diseases.
16. Industrial effluent : Introduction, industrial pollution, domestic sewage and microbiology of sewage, methods for the treatment of industrial effluent and sewage.
12. Microbial air pollution : introduction, methods of measuring microorganisms in air ( indoor and outdoor), air-borne diseases, air pollution control.

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T.U. Curriculum for Microbiology IIIrd Year

T.U. Curriculum for Microbiology IIIrd Year
a. Agriculture and Food Microbiology


Course No. : MB 331
Full Marks : 100
Pass Marks :35

1. Formation Of Soil : Physical factors, Chemical factors, Biological factors
2. Soil And Its Constitution : Mineraol matters, Soil solution, Gases
3. Discrimination of Microorganisms and their roles : bacteria, Fungi, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Blue-green algae (cyanobacteria)
4. Rhizospheric and Phyllospheric Microorganisms : Introduction, Role of crop production, Factors influencing their growth and activities.
5. Role of Different Microorganisms : Introduction, Nitrogen cycle, Ammonification, nitrification, denitrification, carbon cycle, organic matter decomposition, recycling of organic wastes, Phosphorus solubilisation, inorganic phosphorous, organic phosphorous, sulphur cycle, mineralization, microbial asimilation of Sulphur, oxidation of sulphur, reduction of inorganic sulphur compounds.
6. Anaerobic decomposition and mechanism of methane production and application : Anaerobic decomposition of organic compounds, mechanism of methane production, digested slurry as manure.
7. Microorganisms in various foods : Bacteria, Molds, Yeasts, Primary source o9f microorganisms in food contamination.
8. Techniques used for the determinastion of microorganisms in food : Techniques of demonstration of microorganisms in food, sampling methods (various food industries, dairy market, meat market), culture.
9. Factors Affecting the microbial growth (intrinsic and extrinsic) : Intrinsic parameters, extrinsic parameters.
10. Food handling and spoilage : Different types of food handling in industries and market, spoilage of : fruits and vegetables, fresh and processed meat and poultry product, egg and egg products, milk and milk products, canned fluids, flour cereals and bakery products, fermented foods, soft drinks.
11. Food preservations : Chemical, Irradiation, Low temperature and High temperature drying.
12. Food quality evaluation : Quality standard of milk, quality standard of bakeries, quality standard of meat and eggs, quality control of food.
13. Role of microorganisms in food spoilage : Gram positive cocci (Staphylococcus spp.), Gram positive spore formers (Clostridium spp.), Gram negative bacteria ( Salmonella spp.)

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What is a gene mutation and how do mutations occur?

A gene mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene. Mutations range in size from a single DNA building block (DNA base) to a large segment of a chromosome.
Gene mutations occur in two ways: they can be inherited from a parent or acquired during a person’s lifetime. Mutations that are passed from parent to child are called hereditary mutations or germline mutations (because they are present in the egg and sperm cells, which are also called germ cells). This type of mutation is present throughout a person’s life in virtually every cell in the body.
Mutations that occur only in an egg or sperm cell, or those that occur just after fertilization, are called new (de novo) mutations. De novo mutations may explain genetic disorders in which an affected child has a mutation in every cell, but has no family history of the disorder.
Acquired (or somatic) mutations occur in the DNA of individual cells at some time during a person’s life. These changes can be caused by environmental factors such as ultraviolet radiation from the sun, or can occur if a mistake is made as DNA copies itself during cell division. Acquired mutations in somatic cells (cells other than sperm and egg cells) cannot be passed on to the next generation.
Mutations may also occur in a single cell within an early embryo. As all the cells divide during growth and development, the individual will have some cells with the mutation and some cells without the genetic change. This situation is called mosaicism.
Some genetic changes are very rare; others are common in the population. Genetic changes that occur in more than 1 percent of the population are called polymorphisms. They are common enough to be considered a normal variation in the DNA. Polymorphisms are responsible for many of the normal differences between people such as eye color, hair color, and blood type. Although many polymorphisms have no negative effects on a person’s health, some of these variations may influence the risk of developing certain disorders.

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Gene Cloning

Gene manipulation or gene cloning involves separating a specific gene or DNA segment from a larger chromosome, attaching or to a small molecule of carrier DNA or simply vector and then replicating this modified DNA thousands or millions of times through both an increase in cell number and the creation of multiple copies of cloned DNA in each cell. The result is selective amplification of a particular gene or DNA segment. A clone is an identical copy. These methods and related tasks are collectively referred to as recombinant DNA technology or more informally genetic engineering.
Cloning of DNA genes from any organism entails five general steps:
• Isolation of gene of interests.
• Insertion of foreign DNA into a vector.
• Introduction of the recombinant vector into host cells.
• Selection of transformed host cells.
• Cloning or mass culture of transformed host cells.

1. Isolation of gene of interests: The gene of interest can be isolated from variety of sources. The gene is either prepared from the genome by restriction enzymes or may be prepared from mRNA using reverse transcriptase.
2. Insertion of foreign DNA into a vector: The gene is fragmented by using the specific restriction enzyme to develop specific cohesive ends. The cloning vector is also treated with the same enzyme so that cohesive ends generated may have complementary residues similar to foreign DNA.
The fragments are brought together to join by DNA ligase enzyme under optimal condition. This steps provides the recombinant DNA i.e. DNA from sources.
3. Transfer of recombinant DNA into the host: Recombinant plasmid or DNA are introduced into bacterial cells by a process called transformation. The cells and plasmid DNA are incubated together at 0oC in a CaCl2 solution, then subjected to a shock by rapidly shifting the temperature to 37oC to 43oC. By doing this some of cells take up the plasmid. Electroporation can be used alternative to this method.
4. Selection of transformed cells: The transformed cells containing recombinant plasmids are identified. This is usually done by adding ‘marker gene’ in the cloning vector. These marker genes are often for antibiotic resistance.
5. Propagation or Cloning: When the required cells are selected they are cultured in nutrient medium so as to propagate the DNA into high numbers. As the bacteria divides, the recombinant DNA molecules also divide producing high number of clone genes. The cloned genes and bacteria are then used for industrial processes.

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What is Recombinant DNA Technology? Describe its medical applications

Recombinant DNA Technology is the part of genetic engineering in which cells are genetically engineered to obtain a valuable product like enzyme, metabolites, insulin, hepatitis vaccine which plays an important role in medical microbiology in addition to other prospects. The maximum benefits of biotechnology have been utilized by health care. This technology derives proteins and polypeptides to form the new class of potential drugs. Since 1982 human insulin has been produced by microorganisms in fermenters, used to treat diabetes.

Applications of Recombinant DNA technology
• Recombinant vaccine like Hepatitis-B vaccine: Microorganisms are genetically modified with Hepatitis gene and cultured so as to produce huge amount of hepatitis vaccine to treat hepatitis-B.
• Golden rice: Golden rice is medicinal plant product in which plant is recombinant with vitamin A producing gene and grown on field to obtain Golden rice which is widely used in treating blindness and malnutrition person.
• Recombinant metabolites like insulin: insulin can be produced on large scale by recombinant technology on microorganisms and used to treat the diabetic patient. Recombinant insulin is recognized by humulin.
• Recombinant enzymes: Recombinant DNA technology is done on microorganisms to produce large scale of enzyme like urease, streptodecase, alpha asparaginase, trypsin etc. for different purposes.
• Changing blood group: Enzymes provided by recombinant DNA technology is widely used to change blood group. Polysaccharides on RBC determine each type of blood group like A and B which on enzymatic hydrolysis, polysaccharides is removed and type A and B converted to O and are used widely in blood transfusion.
• Gene Therapy to cure genetic disease: Gene therapy is done directly by gene gun into patient body to cure a genetic disease which is also a recombinant technology.
• Criminal Investigation: DNA finger printing or polymerase chain reaction is a recombinant DNA technology in which single gene is amplified on large scale an investigate criminal on the basis of genome sequence.
• Diagnostic mechanism: Monoclonal anti body like immunoglobin can be produced on large scale by recombination of microorganisms with antibody gene and these monoclonal antibodies is used to depict pregnancy, cancer, allergy etc.
• Prevents from environmental disease: Recombinant DNA technology nowdays become basic tool obtaining recombinant organism for achieving metabolites which are responsible for eliminating environmental pollution. As it clears environment, it protests from disease, caused by pollutions. For eg. Pseudomonas putida used to treat oil spillage on sea and prevents from disease caused by oil on consumption through water.

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What is a gene mutation and how do mutations occur?

A gene mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene. Mutations range in size from a single DNA building block (DNA base) to a large segment of a chromosome.
Gene mutations occur in two ways: they can be inherited from a parent or acquired during a person’s lifetime. Mutations that are passed from parent to child are called hereditary mutations or germline mutations (because they are present in the egg and sperm cells, which are also called germ cells). This type of mutation is present throughout a person’s life in virtually every cell in the body.
Mutations that occur only in an egg or sperm cell, or those that occur just after fertilization, are called new (de novo) mutations. De novo mutations may explain genetic disorders in which an affected child has a mutation in every cell, but has no family history of the disorder.
Acquired (or somatic) mutations occur in the DNA of individual cells at some time during a person’s life. These changes can be caused by environmental factors such as ultraviolet radiation from the sun, or can occur if a mistake is made as DNA copies itself during cell division. Acquired mutations in somatic cells (cells other than sperm and egg cells) cannot be passed on to the next generation.
Mutations may also occur in a single cell within an early embryo. As all the cells divide during growth and development, the individual will have some cells with the mutation and some cells without the genetic change. This situation is called mosaicism.
Some genetic changes are very rare; others are common in the population. Genetic changes that occur in more than 1 percent of the population are called polymorphisms. They are common enough to be considered a normal variation in the DNA. Polymorphisms are responsible for many of the normal differences between people such as eye color, hair color, and blood type. Although many polymorphisms have no negative effects on a person’s health, some of these variations may influence the risk of developing certain disorders.

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Carbohydrate

Carbohydratesl Also called saccharides
- The name carbohydrate is derived from (C-H2O)n, or 'hydrate of carbon.'
- They are mostly produced by photosynthesis
- Crucial role in in living organism:
- energy storage
-protective coating
-derivates of other biological molecules
Monosaccharides:l the smallest units of carbohydrate structure.
- empirical formula (CH2O)n, where n >= 3 (n is usually five or six but can be up to nine).
Oligosaccharidesl polymers of 2 - 20 monosaccharide residues.
- most common oligosaccharides are the disaccharides
Polysaccharides
- polymers that contain usually > 20 monosaccharide residues.
-do not have the empirical formula (CH2O)
Glycoconjugates
- carbohydrate derivatives in which one or more carbohydrate chains are linked covalently to a peptide chain,
protein, or lipid.

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